Professor Emeritus, Department of Cellular & Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco
http://cmp.ucsf.edu/faculty/anthony-trevor
The disease is often rapidly progres by C1 in to C4a and C4b; C4a is a weak anaphylo sive sleep aid supplement buy provigil in india, with diverse described manifestations insomnia robin williams purchase genuine provigil line, including to xin sleep aid xyrem buy provigil no prescription, while C4b binds to C2a and can trigger the sepsis insomnia verb purchase provigil without a prescription, hypogammaglobulinemia insomniaxanax withdrawal purchase 100mg provigil, and arthritis insomnia humor order provigil, and complement cascade sleep aid ar buy cheap provigil 100 mg line. Sarcoidosis is characterized by the formation of gran pathogenic role of Th17 cells for a to pic dermatitis insomnia gaming festival generic 200mg provigil with amex. All the other choices are possible manifestations antimicrobial defense against bacterial skin infections. No interaction with collagen High levels associated with nonscarring wound healing. The epidermis, dermis, appendages, and melanocytes are each maintained by different stem cell 2. Stem cells undergo asymmetric division, gen erating one new stem cell and one daughter transit amplifying A. Seventy percent of the cornified cell envelope consists melanocytes produce melaninfi Weibel-Palade bodies are present within the following form homodimers and heterodimers with other proteins cells: to increase solubilization. Endothelial cells N-terminus of desmoplakin can bind plakoglobin and plakophilin and in desmosomes, it can bind plakoglobin, 17. At the 8th week of fetal development melanocytes collagen: develop from the neural crest cells. New York: teins that do not form large aggregates but are capable Garland Science; 2002. The layer appears as an electronlucent zone and con Blume U, Ferracin J, Verschoore M, et al. Developmental changes during angiogenesis in the aortic ring Fuchs E, Weber K: Intermediate filaments: structure, dynamics, plasma clot model. It has In a clinical study, 1 or more outcomes are observed or mea infinite number of possible values. Outcomes vary from subject to subject and may or may variables are usually measurements such as height, weight, not be numerical values. The probability of observing any single value is often want to represent outcomes as numbers. Instead, it is defined over a range of values, numerical value with every possible outcome of a study. Many statistical tests rely on the assumption that analyzed the probabilities associated with its classification after data are derived from a population that has a normal (Gaussian) a treatment can be expressed as a table (Table 29-1) or distribution. It is used to determine the probability of the following properties measure the spread or variability of developing a specific disease and to detect etiologic fac a distribution to rs. Variances time) divided by the number of individuals in the popula are typically useful only when the measurements follow tion at that specific time. A data Positively skewed data are represented by a distribution that has a long right tail while negatively skewed data are repre sented by a distribution that has a long left tail (Fig. Zero equals no association, +1 equals 0 5 10 15 a perfect positive linear correlation (Fig. Random variable and its distribution (described earlier mean is in the chapter) 2. The larger the ratio, t statistics, the more likely it is to dem a When used, the null hypothesis is presumed true until sta onstrate a statistical difference from H0. The probabilities associated with its classification H0: P1 = P2 = P2 = = Pk after a treatment can be expressed as in Table 29-1. Under are based on the assumptions that samples are obtained from the null hypothesis, a known distribution. Thus, the linear regression cannot be common in multivariate analysis applied to survival time data. Again, to assess the Regression Analysis reliability of measurement depends on whether the variable is Regression analysis is a model relating multiple predic to r continuous or discrete. Continuous Variable (A) high accuracy and high precision; (B) low accuracy An ideal measurement should be both accurate and pre and low precision; and (C) low accuracy and low cise which means all measurements are close to and tightly precision. Does the statistical notions alone; some causal assumptions are effect generalize to the population from which the necessary sample was drawnfi What subject receives treatments being compared or both the do these results mean to youfi You wish to find further information about this screen to xicity and the dose-schedule of treatment ing test. Calculate the positive and negative types) for which the treatment appears promising and predictive value of the test. Which of the following can be used to summarize the variability of a continuous outcome variablefi A study was conducted to assess the risk of stroke in of the curve relation to the use of an oral therapy that you wish to use for your patient. A study which is done in a very specific population that administered to patients who were admitted with a is not generalizable to the population that you treat, stroke as well as to a control set of patients who were would be said have low: admitted for nonstroke-related problems to determine A. The results of a randomized controlled trial using ther apy to treat a severe skin malignancy showed a mortality 11. They involve fairly large comparative trials based on previous information from smaller trials to determine 7. When looking at the possible outcomes of a randomized the effectiveness and safety of a new treatment rela controlled trial that compare 2 treatments, you generate tive to standard therapy. You just completed a randomized clinical trial compar ing new treatment A with old treatment B. What is the most appropriate interpre Your decision Treatments are Treatments tation of this resultfi What is the reason that blinding (masking) the examiner is important in a clinical trialfi Of all the people with the hospital from the year 1980, which were examined in disease, the number that will have a positive test. This tive]) 100/[100 + 1] = 99% Of all the people without the is an example of: disease, the number that will have a negative test. The power of a study tells the investiga to r how good False positive]) 200/[200 + 10] = 95%. Of all the people the study is at correctly identifying a diference between with a positive test, the number that will have the the treatments being tested, if in reality they actually are disease. The probability of making a type people with a negative test, the number that will not have I error is the p-value (or a). Standard deviation measures how widely measure followed for a long period of time to determine whether ments are scattered around the mean, while standard an outcome of interest has occurred, i. A normal distribution is a bell-shaped curve (1 peak) or longitudinal), the study follows the subjects through where approximately 68% of the results fall within time until the point at which the outcome develops or 1 standard deviation and about 95% within 2 standard not. Using data from 1980, the median is the value that half the population falls below, observation time will be shortened. For this reason it is these numbers can be very close when values follow a called a retrospective cohort (or a his to rical cohort or normal distribution. One major objective of trials is to have the results and nonexposed groups will be compared. When sectional study both exposure and disease outcome are a trial has low external validity, the therapy is found to determined at the same time for each subject. Case control studies start with takes in to account whether the trial was done properly those who have the disease outcome and compares them and had valid fndings. Similarly, concluding that the treatments are diferent when in reality they are diferent is also a correct answer. A type I Cases With Cases Without Stroke Stroke error is committed when there is no diference between treatments but on the basis of the study, the investiga to rs erroneously conclude that they are diferent. The prob His to ry of A = 10 B = 200 ability of making this error is the p-value (or a). Since the to tal of all probabilities are equal to 1, the probability that the inves 11. Food and Drug Administration follows a tiga to rs correctly decide on the basis of their study that standard pro to col in testing new pharmaceutical agents. Phase 1 are small studies that evaluate the agent for to x ins and pharmaceutical efects while Phase 2 are larger studies that look for efcacy and safety. Phase 3 are large Truth randomized controlled trials that test for efectiveness and safety, which if successful would then be approved Your decision Treatments are Treatments are for marketing. Phase 4 studies are postmarketing surveil not different different lance studies that will continue the study for safety and efectiveness as it is used by the public. Although there is a measurement diference between not different treatments (20%), the conventional type I error, 0. Blinding (masking) in a clinical trial can reduce the Gordis L: Epidemiology, 3rd Ed. Do not forget Pink/Purple background it stains some fungal organisms with melanin in their cell walls. Urates on H&E look light brown Black-Blue staining of Intracellular or extracellular Sudan black Requires fresh tissue. The brown melanoma, showing page to id spread of atypical Ki-67 component labels nuclei. A 30-year-old African-American woman has hypopig Immunohis to chemical studies reveal that these are mented patches on the trunk and elbows. Antitryptase antibody logical differential diagnosis is melanoma in situ, seba C. You call the pathologist to discuss the case, because you are pretty sure of your clinical 5. Which of the following is a question that you of the following stains may be helpful in evaluating a may ask the pathologistfi Adipophilin labels the lipid microvesicles in is: sebaceous cells, and therefore this to o should be negative A. Which of the following antibodies labels Langerhans nase would be positive in melanocytic cells. In cases of sebaceous carcinoma, a fat stain (such as occasion, be difcult to fnd) a Von-Kossa stain would be an Oil red-O stain that gives fat a red-orange color) is helpful. A clue to the diagnosis on H&E is the presence stasis dermatitis (acroangiodermatitis) can his to logically of plasma cells around the aggregates of lymphocytes.
Lal (1991) revealed that the larval infestation of Phthorimea operculella on pota to es were consistently reduced when pota to es were grown with chillies sleep aid for dementia patients provigil 200 mg on-line, onion and peas compared to pota to alone insomnia by dana gioia cheap 100mg provigil with visa. Rabindra & Prashad (2001) observed significant reduction of the incidence of shoot and fruit borer when brinjal was grown in association with Marigold sleep aid pregnancy purchase provigil cheap. Effect of different umbellifer crop on the abundance of natural enemies Effect of different umbellifer crop on the abundance of natural enemies in brinjal crop has been observed per plant in each crop combination during the entire crop period and are presented in Table 1 sleep aid gels cheap provigil express. The mean number of lady bird beetle per plant recorded from different crop combinations are also shown in Table 1 insomnia you are not my friend provigil 200 mg low cost. This might be due to the fact that diversity of plant species provided important resources for natural enemies such as alternate prey insomnia 630 am trusted provigil 200mg, necter and pollen or breeding site as pointed by Russel (1989) insomnia 56 order 200 mg provigil amex. Dampster and Choker (1974) found that the preda to ry activities of ground beetles were enhanced when cabbage was under shown with white and red clover resulting in regulation of population of Erioschia brassicae and Pieries rapae insomnia on zoloft purchase provigil toronto. Field evaluation of wilt disease and shoot and fruit borer attack of different cultivars of brinjal. Effect of vegetable oil on the ovipositional behaviour of Callosobruchus maculates (Fab. Progress in resistance studies in eggplant (Solanum melongena L) against shoot and fruit borer (L. Management of brinjal shoot and fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis Guenee (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in field. Effect of intercropping on the incidence of pota to tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller). Effect of crop-association and insecticide on the incidence of shoot and fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis Guen of brinjal. Influence of bean to ma to intercropping on population dynamics of the pota to leaf hopper (Homoptera; Cicadellidae). Enemies hypothesis: a review of the effect of vegetational diversity on preda to ry insects and parasi to ids. An unusual heavy parasitization of brinjal shoot and fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis Guen. Different umbellifer crops grown with brinjal and its effect on shoot and fruit infestation of brinjal by brinjal shoot and fruit borer during December (2004) through February (2005). Treatments Shoot Shoot Fruit infestation Reducing fruit infestation infestation (%) infestation over (%) reduction control (%) over By By By By control number weight number weight (%) Brinjal 6. Number of fruit per plant Healthy Reduction of Healthy Infested Total fruit fruit Treatments (%) infestation over control Brinjal (control) 26. Different umbellifer crops grown with brinjal and it effect on yield performance of brinjal by weight during winter 2004. Weight of fruit per plant(kg) Yield Reduction Treatment increase of fruit Healthy Infested Total over infestation control over control Brinjal (control) 0. Umbellifer crops grown with brinjal and its influence on the incidence of natural enemies of brinjal shoot and fruit borer during winter 2004. Treatment Number of natural enemies recorded per plant Spider Lady bird beetle Brinjal sole (control) 0. Occurrence and prevalence of six honey bee viruses in Hakkari (Turkey) and their genomic divergence. Including the central Hakkari, the districts of Cukurca, Semdinli and Yuksekova were surveyed to assess the types of symp to ms and the severity of the diseases of honey bees in a to tal of 90 apiaries. In general, they cause inapparent, symp to mless infections in honeybee and therefore, often go undetected (Bailey, 1967). In Turkey, traditional beekeeping is one of the oldest practices carried out by beekeepers in Hakkari province and some other localities. Up to date, the presence of Acute bee paralysis virus (Rustemoglu & Sipahioglu, 2016), Deformed wing virus (Gulmez et al, 2009), Chronic bee paralysis virus, Black queen cell virus (Gumusova et al. For each detected virus species, one isolate was selected for cloning and sequencing to investigate the virus genetic diversity. The honeybee samples exhibiting deformed wing, shortened abdomen, discoloration, flightless, blackening, paralysis etc. The honeybee samples were transported on ice, then frozen at -86 fiC until processed. Honeybee samples were homogenized in a pre cooled sterile mortar in the presence of 1 ml of grinding buffer (4. Aliquots of 500 fil of the extract were mixed with 100 fil of 10% sodium lauryl sarcosyl solution in a new set of sterile microfuge tubes and centrifuged at 14,000 rpm with a refrigerated centrifuge for 10 min. Then, 300 fil of the supernatant were transferred to a new sterile tube containing 150 fil of ethanol, 100 fil of resuspended silica and 300 fil of 6 M sodium iodide. After centrifugation at 6,000 rpm for 1 min, the supernatant was discarded and the pellet washed twice with washing buffer. The all reactions were performed using an Eppendorf Mastercycler and products were visualized by electrophoresis in 1% (w/v) agarose gels stained with ethidium bromide (Sambrook et al. The clones containing the four viruses related genes were selected for propagation. The phylogenetic tree was created using Neighbor-Joining method from sequences of honeybee viruses and sequences of other 4 distinct honeybee viruses studied in this work. The method used in this study for detection of honeybee viruses was rapid, reliable and useful for large scale epidemiological studies. The virus occurred in only three surveyed areas including central Hakkari, Semdinli and Yuksekova and in 32% of all samples (Fig. As shown in phylogenetic trees the compared individual virus species were exhibited high levels of sequence similarity for compared genes (Figs. The all compared viral sequences exhibited high levels of sequence similarity for all genes. Almost all symp to matic samples from surveyed localities were infected with at least one virus or co infected with more than one. In general, the frequencies obtained from this study are less than the frequencies found for the same viruses from other parts of the world. The real reason of differences in prevalence of bee viruses worldwide are not fully known. It may probably be related to bee management practices, to pographic isolation and sample selection. For each identified virus species, a virus isolate was randomly selected, and their partial genomes were characterized. Even though mono infections were more common than dual and triple infections in our study, a high level of dual infections was observed in sampled apiaries. The phylogenetic trees were created mainly from sequences obtained from recent isolates of bee viruses from different countries (Fig. In the present work, we have provided evidence for four out of six different honeybee viruses as singular or multiple-infections in Hakkari, Turkey. The low incidence of infection levels of bees in Hakkari probably resulted from high mountains constitute the several ecozones for bees in the surveyed areas, restricting the flying of bees. For better understanding of viral introduction, transmission, and viral fluctuations in bee populations, further studies need to be made, covering different types of insects around the apiaries Mun. Inapparent virus infections and their interactions in pupae of the honey bee (Apis melliferaLinnaeus) in Australia. Detection of Chronic bee paralysis virus andAcute bee paralysis virus in Uruguayan honeybees. Occurrence and genetic analysis of picorna-like viruses infecting worker bees of Apis melliferaL. Development of infectious transcripts and genome manipulation of Black queen cell virus of honey bees. Multiple virus infections in the honey bee and genome divergence of honey bee viruses, J. Eighth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy viruses San Diego, Academic Press (Elsevier Press). Genetic evidence for coinfection of honey bees by acute bee paralysis and Kashmir bee viruses. Incidence of Acute bee paralysis virus, Black queen cell virus, Chronic bee paralysis virus, Deformed wing virus, Kashmir bee virus and Sacbrood virus in honey bees (Apis mellifera) in Denmark. Hakkari province, located at the eastern Ana to lia (Turkey), surveyed for the presence of bee-infecting viruses. Neighbor-Joining method was used to create the phylogenetic relationship of viruses. A contribution to the Ichneumoninae (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) of Trabzon, Turkey. Among them Barichneumon fumipennis (Gravenhorst, 1820) and Centeterus rubiginosus (Gmelin, 1790) are recorded for the first time from Turkey. For each species, individual diversity, geographical distribution, zoogeographical notes, hosts and associate plants data are summarized. There are forests, shrub lands, large rivers, wetlands, and several mountain ranges. Approximately 60,000 species are estimated to exist worldwide (Townes, 1969), though some estimates place this number at over 100,000. They are severely under sampled, and studies of their diversity typically produce very high numbers of species which are represented by only a single individual (Saunders & Ward, 2018; Fraser et al. Parasi to id wasps of the family Ichneumonidae are one of the most diverse and species-rich groups of organisms with a worldwide distribution (Spasojevic et al. This is the second largest subfamily Ichneumoninae with about 437 genera and 4355 species in the world (Yu et al. Although the Ichneumoninae fauna of Turkey has been studied (Ozdemir, 1996; Yurtcan et al. The number of Ichneumoninae species has reached 241 with the above valuable studies and this study. This paper aim to contribute to the knowledge of Ichneumoninae species distribution in Turkey with new records. Trabzon, his to rically known as Trebizond, is a city on the Black Sea coast of northeastern Turkey and the capital of Trabzon Province. Trabzon, located on the his to rical Silk Road, became a melting pot of religions, languages and culture for centuries and a trade gateway to Persia in the southeast and the Caucasus to the northeast. Due to its spectacular nature and regular and plentiful rainfall Trabzon posesses a thick and abundant vegetation corner. Ortahisar, which is the largest district of the city, also has evidence that it is the oldest settlement with its his to rical and cultural heritage. Our samples were collected from three different altitudes (150 m, 350 m, 700 m) by Omer Selim Ercelep. Collected samples were transferred in to an aspira to r and were killed ethyl acetate. Conventional standard methods (Coruh & Ozbek, 2008) were used for preparation of the samples. General distributions, hosts and associate plants of species were taken from Yu et al (2016). Data on individual numbers, geographical and zoogeographical distributions of species are provided in tables (Tab. Hosts: Lacanobia suasa, Lycaena dispar, Lycaena dispar rutile, Lycaena virgaureae, Neozephyrus quercus. General Distribution: Europe, Algeria, Morocco, Turkey, Iran, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Western China. Hosts: Argyresthia bergiella, Cydia pomonella, Diplolepis rosae, Glyphipterix thrasonella, Pyropteron muscaeformis. Cratichneumon via to r (Scopoli, 1763) Material examined: Trabzon: Ortahisar, Bulak, 700 m, 05. Hosts: Abraxas grossulariata, Abraxas sylvata, Angerona prunaria, A to lmis rubricollis, Au to grapha gamma, Banchus hasta to r, Bis to n betularia, Brachionycha sphinx, Bupalus piniarius, Diprion pini, Ectropis crepuscularia, Ematurga a to maria, Eriogaster lanestris, Hylaea fasciaria, Hyphantria cunea, Hypomecis punctinalis, Leucoma salicis, Lymantria monacha, Macaria liturata, Macaria sexmaculata, Macaria signaria, Macaria truncataria, Melanchra persicariae, Orthosia miniosa, Panolis flammea, Pieris brassicae, Plusia festucae, Pro to boarmia porcelaria. Associate plants: Chaerophyllum aromaticum, Corylus avellana, Daucus carota, Ferulago sylvatica, Heracleum sphondylium, Inula helenium, Laserpitium latifolium, Listera ovata, Peucedanum oreoselinum, Pinus sylvestris, Rubus fruticosus, Vaccinium vitis-idaea. Distribution of Turkey: Bursa, Istanbul, Ordu, Rize (Fahringer, 1922; Kolarov, 1995, Kolarov et al. Diadromus collaris Gravenhorst, 1829 Material examined: Trabzon: Ortahisar, Dolaylfi, 150 m, 24. Hosts: Acrolepiopsis assectella, Lobesia botrana, Plutella xylostella, Brassica napus, Brassica oleracea, Brassica oleracea capitata. Associate plants: Anthriscus sylvestris, Chaerophyllum aromaticum, Chaerophyllum bulbosum, Daucus carota, Heracleum sphondylium, Oryza sativa, Peucedanum oreoselinum. Distribution of Turkey: Ankara, Aydfin, Erzurum, Kfirsehir, Konya, Mugla, Rize, Yozgat (Avcfi & Ozbek, 1990; Ozdemir, 1996; Coruh et al. General Distribution: Afrotropical, Australasian, Palaearctic, Neotropical, Oceanic and Oriental Region. Heterischnus anomalus (Wesmael, 1857) Material examined: Trabzon: Ortahisar, Bulak, 700 m, 27. Heterischnus trunca to r (Fabricius, 1798) Material examined: Trabzon: Ortahisar, Bostancfi, 350 m, 02. Hosts: Alucita grammodactyla, Cnaemidophorus rhododactylus, Dalaca quadricornis, Emmelina monodactyla, Eriogaster lanestris, Heliothis viriplaca, Hyphantria cunea, Leucoma salicis, Marasmarcha lunaedactyla, Panolis flammea, Pterophorus pentadactyla. Distribution of Turkey: Canakkale, Isparta, Istanbul, Erzurum, Giresun, Trabzon, Rize (Kolarov, 1989; Kolarov, 1995; Kolarov et al. Stenichneumon culpa to r (Schrank, 1802) Material examined: Trabzon: Ortahisar, Bostancfi, 350 m, 09. Hosts: Aporia crataegi, Au to grapha gamma, Euphydryas maturna, Euthrix pota to ria, Mellicta athalia, Plusia festucae, Setina aurita, Trichiura crataegi, Trichoplusia ni. Associate plants: Angelica sylvestris, Anthriscus sylvestris, Carum carvi, Chaerophyllum bulbosum, Corylus avellana, Daucus carota, Heracleum sphondylium, Laserpitium latifolium, Pastinaca; Pastinaca graveolens, Peucedanum oreoselinum, Poa pratensis, Quercus sessiliflora. Tycherus fuscicornis (Wesmeal, 1845) Material examined: Trabzon: Ortahisar, Dolaylfi, 01. Vulgichneumon decep to r (Scopoli, 1763) Material examined: Trabzon: Ortahisar, Dolaylfi, 24. Zoogeographical notes the zoogeographical characterization mainly follows the chorotype classification of the Near East fauna proposed by Taglianti et al. After investigation of the recent geographic distribution of the species listed above, they can be divided in to the following groups: 1. Here belong the species Barichneumon fumipennis, Heterischnus anomalus, Oronotus binotatus and Tycherus fuscicornis. In: Animal Biodiversity: An Outline of Higher-level Classification and Survey of Taxonomic Richness, (ed: Z. Taxonomical and biogeographical evaluation of the subfamily Ichneumoninae (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) in Turkey. Ichneumonidae (Hymenoptera) collected from under s to ne in Eastern Ana to lia Region of Turkey. A faunistic and systematic study on Pimplinae (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) in Eastern and Northeastern parts of Turkey. An additional contribution to the Ichneumoninae (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) fauna of Turkey. The fauna of Ichneumonidae (Hymenoptera) of eastern Turkey with zoogeographical remarks and host data. New and Little Known Species of Ichneumonidae (Hymenoptera) for the Turkish Fauna. Western Palaearctic Oedicephalini and Phaeogenini (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae, Ichneumoninae) in the National Museums of Scotland, with distribtional data including 28 species new to Britain, rearing records, and descriptions of two new species if Aethecerus Wesmael and one of Diadromus Wesmael. Hymenopterologische Ergebnisse einer wissenschaftlichen Studienreise nach der Turkei und Kleinasien (mit Ausschlufi des Amanusgebirges). The effectiveness and optimal use of Malaise traps for moni to ring parasi to id wasps. Investigation of the Ichneumonidae, Ampulicidae, Crabronidae and Sphecidae (Hymenoptera, Insect) Fauna in Natural Protection Zones of East Mediteranean Region in Turkey. Ophioninae, Anomloninae, Me to piinae, Mesochorinae, Acaenitinae, Oxy to rinae, Orthopelmatinae, Collyriinae, Orthocentrinae, Diplazontinae and Ichneumoninae. Contribution to the knowledge of the Ichneumonidae (Hymenoptera) fauna of Turkey from northeastern Ana to lia, Part I. Gelincik Dagfi Tabiat Parkfi ve Kovada Golu Milli Parkfi (Isparta) Ichneumonidae (Hymenoptera) Faunasfi. Suleyman Demirel Universitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitusu, Dok to ra Tezi, Isparta, 149 s. Die Coelichneumon-Arten (Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae, Ichneumoninae) des Biologiezentrums Linz, Austria. Contribution to the Ichneumoninae (Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae) fauna of Turkey, with description of three new species. New Records and Little-known Ichneumoninae (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) from Turkey, with description of the male of Melanichneumon glauca to riops Heinrich. Variation in the diversity and richness of parasi to id wasps based on sampling effort. Seven remarkable new fossil species of parasi to id wasps (Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae) from the Eocene. A proposal for a chorotype classification of the Near East fauna, in the framework of the Western Palearctic region. Evaluation of integrated approaches for the management of brinjal shoot and fruit borer utilizing antixenotic variety of brinjal.
Unusual Special Techniques: Treatment of Modified Vertebrae in Respira to ry Influenza insomnia 6 hours sleep order provigil paypal. An Ultrastructural Investigation of the Trophic Role of the Nerve in the Development and Maintenance of Muscle insomnia pregnancy buy provigil 200mg line. Mechanicoelectrically Recorded Physiological Patterns which Relate to Subjectively Reported Craniosacral Mechanism Phenomena insomnia headache order 100 mg provigil otc. Relationship of Craniosacral Examination Findings in Grade School Children with Developmental Problems insomnia 1997 provigil 200mg cheap. Symposium on the Plastic Basicranium: Traumatization of Plastic Basicranium other than Obstetrical insomnia 58 provigil 200mg visa. Relation of the Craniofacial Bones to Specific Somatic Dysfunctions: A Clinical Study of the Effects of Manipulation sleep aid video purchase provigil with a visa. Here are additional research studies that have been published in healthcare journals showing movement of the cranial bones insomnia kevin gates lyrics provigil 200 mg on-line. Slow rhythmic oscillations with the human cranium: phenomenology sleep aid without diphenhydramine buy discount provigil line, origin, and informational significance. A modern conceptualization of the functioning of the primary respira to ry mechanism. Pulsatile brain movement and associated hydrodynamics studied by magnetic resonance phase imaging. Additional Books and Research Articles An Objective Measurement of Craniosacral Rhythm. Geldschlager S: Osteopathic versus orthopedic treatments for chronic epicondylopathia humeri radialis: a randomized controlled trial. The Effects of Craniosacral Therapy on Blood Pressure, Heart and Respira to ry Rates. Mehl-Madrona L, Kligler B, Silverman S, Kyn to n H, Merrell W: the impact of acupuncture and craniosacral therapy interventions on clinical outcomes in adults with asthma. Years, decades, and even centu ries of cus to mary practice patterns and schedules preclude the insinuation of ergonomically designed seating and instruments, safer and more comfort able practice methods, and playing positions. Both practice seating and performance seating are often folding or stackable chairs, or fiat wooden benches. Lengthy practice sessions are cus to mary, with short interruptions for fast foods, caf feine, or nicotine breaks. The musician may be unwilling to seek medical help early, because he or she is concerned that the physician will require the limitation of practice or performance times, or worse, instruct the musi cian to s to p playing al to gether. Early detection and immediate intervention, within days or weeks of onset, may be efiective in most cases for the most complete recovery [3]. Delays in seeking assistance, and delays in the initiation of appropriate care, contribute to severity of the injury and the need for long rest/recovery periods, surgery, or lengthy rehabilitation. Discussing repetitive injury in those whose craft involves precise repeti tion of mo to r patterns involves careful consideration, as muscle damage from repetitive trauma is thought to be dose-related. The longer the exposure to an injurious activity, the more likely pain and long-term harm will develop [6]. Because the onset of muscle pain may be delayed from 2 to 48 hours, the musician may continue playing well beyond the point of injury. As soreness ensues, the musician will adjust playing posture or technique to compensate for this pain. Muscles, tendons, and ligaments unaccus to med to demanding activity are more likely to be injured [2]. For the purposes of this article, neurological and muscle diagnoses will be included in the category repetitive stress injury. Other authors have correlated specific diagnoses to the postures and techniques associated with playing specific instruments. These may include repetitive grasping of the strings and neck of the violin, guitar, and cello, which may increase the risk of median and ulnar neuropathies (neurological) or lateral epicondylalgia (muscle). Postural requirements, such as supporting the violin with the chin while bowing, may increase risk for thoracic outlet syndrome and neck pain. Muscle damage diagnosed as tendinitis is caused by microhe morrhages, tears at the tendon periosteal junction, and sprains and strains of the proximal tendon [2,6,9]. Extreme fatigue contributes to muscle ische mia and tendon creep [10], increasing the risk of muscle damage. Symp to ms generally are localized, and the onset is often traceable to a specific incident. The pianist is most at risk for this disability involving extra, unintentional movement of the fingers and painful cramping during use [11]. Muscle groups, such as the intrinsic hand muscles and long fiexors of the thumb and fingers, con tract uncontrollably, resulting in marked fiexion of the digits, which is relieved only by discontinuing the activity and redirecting or resting the digits. Pianists are also prone to dys to nia of the feet, and trombone players are at risk for dys to nia of the facial muscles [8]. Increased incidence of these diagnoses has been demonstrated to correlate to specific activities [8,12,13]. The peripheral nerves pass through muscular and connective tissue compartments as they traverse the distance between the spinal cord and the distant limbs. The nerves must glide throughout their length to limit tension on the individual axons. MacKinnon and colleagues have shown that sensory axons in mixed nerves are more vulnerable to injury, because they are located in the fascicles on the periphery of the nerve [18]. Sensory disturbances such as paresthesias, nocturnal numbness and tingling, and hypersensitivity often are reported early in the course of these injuries. Through their course, peripheral nerves travel through sites of common entrapment, including muscular and connective tissue compartments. The prolonged awkward postures of playing many instruments may lead to in creased muscle to ne and, perhaps, risk of peripheral nerve entrapment. Chronic hyper to nicity may result in hypertrophy of these compartmental muscles, compressing the nerves within this more limited space. Further, connective tissue adhesions are more likely, as restrictions within the com partments limit neural glide and blood supply. Poor posture and subsequent substitution patterns also contribute to compartmental pressure on the nerves [20,21]. Good balance and postural muscle sequenc ing are essential for proximal stability. Diagnosis Early accurate diagnosis of a repetitive stress injury is imperative, as is early intervention. It is important to difierentiate between muscle infiammation and neural irritation [26]. Early symp to ms in muscle infiammation include localized pain, fatigue, and soreness that may begin during practice, or from 1 to 48 hours afterward. The onset of symp to ms may follow a change in fre quency or length of rehearsal, a new instrument, difierent seating, seasonal changes that expose the musician to cold drafts, or a slight injury followed by onset of soreness. Median nerve symp to ms in clude the thumb, index finger, long finger, and radial half of the ring finger. The diagnostic gold standard is the nerve conduction study, which quantifies slowing of the propagation of the neural action potential. Combining clinical and electrodiagnositc tests with the medical his to ry is efiective in the accurate diagnosis of peripheral nerve injuries [27]. The most efiective treatment is education and implementation of healthy lifestyle habits. Good nutrition, hydration, and the avoidance of cafieine, nicotine, and other stimulants are the building blocks of this treatment program. Aerobic exercise increases peripheral circulation and blood available for neural nutrition. Endurance training, with free weights, elastic bands or tubing, or exercise machines, prepares the musician for long hours of prac tice and performance, and helps ensure that the muscles and joints are more than up to the stresses and strains required. Consistent practice schedules help main tain muscle strength and limit painful overuse. Gradually increasing demands of practice and performance with a new instrument also may limit the risk of overuse injury. Overall balance maintains the appropriate postural muscle sequencing and enhances core body stability. Playing scales or slowly playing simple movements as the practice session begins allows the fingers to prepare for the challenges of playing [7,8]. The exercises should be performed very gently, and within the pain-free range of motion. Long practices should be interrupted by frequent sessions of gently stretching and range-of-motion exercises to improve circulation and relieve fatigue. Care must be taken to avoid pain, bouncing, or forcing the muscles to overstretch [28] (Figs. Movement enhances blood fiow through the extremities, relieves fatigue, and bathes joints in synovial fiuid. Microbreaks that include range of mo tion of the neck and extremities at regular short intervals are recommended to help improve comfort, reduce pain, and limit risk of overuse. Gentle stretching programs may be initiated throughout the day, more frequently during practice sessions, and before and following performances. These have some benefit in reducing discomfort and increasing peripheral circulation. In either position, the shoulders are to be positioned in line above the pelvis, the chin tucked in as if trying to make a double chin. One hand is place on the opposite shoulder, and the opposite hand is placed behind the bent elbow to push, gently, stretching the posterior capsule. The wrist of the stretched arm is fiexed actively, and then the opposite hand is placed on the back of the first hand to stretch it gently in to further fiexion. Ergonomics Modifications in the instrument, seating, lighting, and even temperature regulation, such as avoiding cold drafts, contribute to efiective prevention of overuse injuries. Occupational therapists are trained to assess the individ ual and match him/her with available adaptive devices. Ergonomically designed seating is available for use while playing specific instruments. Appropriate seating allows the feet to be firmly planted on the fioor with the ankles, knees, and hips at a 90 angle. The lumbar lordosis should be supported, and the height of the seat pan requires adjustment that facilitates playing of the instrument. The edge of the seat pan should be rounded, limiting pressure against the thighs or the back of the knees [31]. To stretch the forearm extensors, the stretched arm is extended, and the wrist is extended actively. Starting position is with the fingers interlaced, elbows bent, with the hands resting on the lap. Treatment and preventive exercises Early intervention by medical care specialists, such as a physician or oc cupational or physical therapist, will provide the musician with information about the disorder, ergonomics, healthy lifestyle changes, and an overall exercise regime that may be helpful in s to pping the progression of the injury. The initial evaluation takes note of range-of-motion limitations, especially in joints that are more proximal. Poor balance, as in standing on one leg for less than 30 seconds with eyes open or 15 seconds with eyes closed [25], may indicate a sequencing deficit that creates inhibition patterns in pos tural muscles. Muscle to ne in the neck, upper back, shoulder, and upper limb should be assessed through palpation and manual muscle testing. Hyper to nicity in the neck and back supports the notion of a sequencing disorder and suggests the patient may be substituting extremity muscles for posture stabilization over the proximal trunk muscles. Anti infiamma to ry treatments may include heat, ice, massage, counter strain, trigger point release, electrical stimulation, myofascial release, ion to phoresis with steroids, ultrasound, or laser therapy. Strengthening of the efiected region may follow; however it is essential that the patient be warned to avoid pain. Emphasis upon trunk posture and scapular stabilization is essential throughout the strengthening phase [20]. Trunk stabilization One of the elementary exercises for trunk stability is known as the pelvic clock [25]. Patients lie supine with the hips and knees bent to about 45, feet fiat on the surface. As patients master this motion, they are instructed to rock the pelvis to point to ward each of the hour positions. They stand facing a wall with the feet shoulder-width apart, the hands placed on the wall at shoulder level with the elbows bent slightly (Fig. Facilitation of the postural muscles and re-establishing normal muscle se quencing for balance and proximal trunk stabilization require gross mo to r stimulation. The patient sits on a ball large enough for him or her to sit with the hips, knees, and ankles at a 90 angle. This illustrates the athletic stance, feet shoulder-width apart, pelvis tucked in a forward pelvic tilt. The pelvis is rocked in the direction of each of the numerals on the clock face with the abdominal muscles. Balance and coordination exercises escalate, first asking the patient to raise the knees reciprocally every third bounce (hands are on the sides of the ball); then the hands are raised to shoulder level, also in a reciprocal pattern at the same rate. These moves are combined with the patient bouncing, and then raising one knee and the opposite arm reciprocally. Increasing the frequency of the knee and arm raises makes the exercise more complex (Fig. Shoulder stabilization Awareness of the position of the scapula during shoulder range-of-mo tion exercises may assist the patient in establishing improved patterns of shoulder stability [37]. The patient may need to be retrained in engaging latissmus dorsi, leva to r scapulae, the rhomboids, serratus anterior and pos terior, and the rota to r cufi muscles in sequence. The patient is placed in side lying position with a pillow that supports the head in a neutral position. The pelvic clock is an introduc to ry exercise that as sists with establishing balance and fiexibility on the exercise ball. As balance and comfort im prove, bouncing, marching in place, and raising the arms reciprocally are introduced one at a time. They are made more dificult by increasing speed, height of the limbs in the reciprocal pattern, and com plexity of the arm motions. The patient is directed to stretch the upper arm so the hand is just past the lower hand. Upper quadrant strengthening Shoulder range of motion against gravity is the first step in progressive resistive exercises. Codman exercises are a widely used program for improving shoulder range of motion. These should be performed early in the strengthening progression with 1 lb weights. As long as the individual is pain-free, low weight free weight exercises are added and advanced slowly. The therapist manually repositions the scapula, facilitating positions of stability. The free arm is rotated slowly in to forward fiexion, and the trunk is rotated to allow a full swing of the arm through a full rotation. At each hour on an imaginary clock face, the therapist provides manual feedback to encourage scapular stabilization. After several practices with the therapist, the musician may perform this exercise as part of the exercise regime. The musician stands next to the exercise ball, bends over slightly bending the knees, places the open hands palm down on the ball about shoulder-width apart.
Similar; networks are comparable to the relative reference network insomnia upenn buy provigil 200 mg free shipping, and the 2 removal and/or insertion of up to 4 edges is enough to make them identical; 3 sleep aid tylenol buy generic provigil canada. Dissimilar; networks are quite different from the relative reference network sleep aid doxylamine succinate side effects discount 100 mg provigil fast delivery, and the removal and/or insertion of up to 4 edges is not sufficient to make 2 them identical sleep aid equate discount provigil 100mg with amex. The highest incidence of identical networks was observed in the sparse 2 Identical in terms of the number of edges sleep aid essential oil purchase provigil mastercard. Bars show the mean percentage across all observers insomnia stephen king purchase 100mg provigil otc, for each observer category (identical insomnia 57 tickets order 200 mg provigil fast delivery, similar and dissimilar) sleep aid in tylenol pm buy provigil overnight. Influence of learning on observer performance the observers recruited for this study had no prior experience of applying the techniques investigated in this study, and therefore it was expected there may be an indication of learning during the course of the observer trial. To minimise error from the complexity of the networks, observers were provided with the images in one of three sequences; increasing complexity, decreasing complexity and at random. This was established by assessing the first four, and the final four networks considered by each observer in their given image sequence. Observers were categorised as performing better (more identical networks at end compared to the start), same (comparable performance at the start as at the end) or worse (more identical networks at the start than at the end). The dark blue coloured areas represent the number of observers whose performance improved (better), the light blue areas represent the number of observers whose performance was neither improved or reduced (same). Finally the black areas show the number of observers whose performance was worse at the end of the study, compared to the start of the study (worse). The three bars represent the three image groups (varying order of network complexity). This improvement could be attributed to the simpler networks at the end of the set however, when improvement is seen in the group with increasing complexity (2 observers); this suggests that learning may have taken place. It can also be seen that in all three groups, a number of observers performed worse at the end of the sequence; most of these were using the decreasing complexity group (3 observers). The overall results suggest there was a possibility of learning as overall, there were more observers who performed better at the end, compared to those who performed worse (8 observers). However, given the limited sample size, this cannot be deduced conclusively from the data obtained during this study. The current research carried out observer studies to establish the validity of extracting vein network information from digital images in a manner that enables subsequent quantitative analysis of the vein network. However, due to current lack of au to mated software available that can extract the vein pattern from a visible light pho to graphic image for forensic purposes, it was necessary to test the manual extraction method. Intra-observer the intra-observer study set out to establish whether the method used to extract vein networks was applied repeatedly by one observer (the author) on more than one occasion. Visual examination of performance In a 2 stage process it was important to assess both stages independently, as well as the end result. The first stage of the methods involved manually tracing the vein pattern on to the digital image. It was therefore possible to visualise all traces simultaneously by merging all traces in Pho to shop. From this it was seen that the majority of traces did not match precisely; an unexpected result as the trace in the observer study was produced using a template. Because the observer was aware of the requirements of the analysis it is possible that less attention was paid to precise line placement. It was therefore important to also assess the vein pattern after it had been translated to a network. From this, it could be seen that just over half (52%) of the networks were recorded as isomorphic in all 6 repeats. It should be borne in mind that this value relates to networks being isomorphic, and therefore does not account for networks which were very similar. The pairwise comparisons also highlighted that the worst overall performance was observed in the dense networks suggesting network complexity influences the ability to repeatedly identify vein network features. Comparison of visual and statistical approaches It is important to compare the two stages of the process, to identify potential sources of error; which will enable development of the method to minimise this error as far as possible. When comparing the results of the visual and statistical assessment of the vein network, in some cases, it was found that where a network was shown to be traced precisely, the statistical interpretation showed that not all repeats were recorded the same. Upon examination of the traces, the majority of the traces did not match exactly; however, this was not found when comparing this to the statistically analysed data. This indicates that visual examination of traces does not always equate to the to pological information that has been recorded for the purposes of quantification. Although this source of error has been highlighted in this study, this should not detract from the benefit of assessing vein patterns via network analysis. It is appreciated that precise tracing is of utmost importance when it is only the trace which is being assessed (as current forensic methods (Meadows, 2011)); however when tracing is one of two stages involved in information extraction, to which the subsequent stage is key to data recording, the precision of tracing becomes less important. Essentially, the re-tracing of a manual trace is a redundant task; however, it aids the user in clarification of data points (nodes), and was therefore deemed necessary in this study. The comparison of both stages of the data extraction process highlights the importance of a human observer to check the output in relation to the original data source. Observer performance regarding motif detection Further to the number of edges detected, pairwise comparisons were conducted with regard to motif detection, giving a more detailed assessment of observer performance. Observer performance regarding prominent vein network features Certain features of vein networks are important to discuss, as due to their relative rarity, they have potential of being an individuating feature. They were mostly identified in the dense networks, followed by the sparse, with the intermediate networks having the least intersections present. They were mostly observed in the dense networks, followed by the intermediate, with the sparse showing the least loops. This result does not agree with the findings from Meadows (2011), where loops were more reliably identified than intersections. Overall, the results from this study show that when present, intersections or loops are consistently identified. This may be attributed to the relatively low prevalence in the sample, or perhaps that these features are more distinct than edges and nodes and therefore appear more obvious to the observer. This consistency in identification of the feature should be regarded as an indication that these features can be identified with confidence in a forensic scenario. Overall the performance of the observer was shown to be repeatable, irrespective of network complexity. The differences observed could be due to expected error and fluctuations in the data. Further studies would benefit from a larger sample of images, and additional repeats so that more in depth statistical analyses can be conducted. To assess the differences in responses from the observers, each network was compared to a reference network, produced by the author, to determine the level of similarity between the two. Networks were graded as identical, similar or dissimilar in relation to the number of edges identified. Observer performance and network complexity It was expected that since more complex networks contain more pattern information; this presents more opportunity for variation in the interpretation of pattern detail. The sparse networks showed the highest number of identical network reproductions (59. This difference suggests that simple networks are more consistently reproducible, but moderate to more complex networks are more difficult to reproduce repeatedly. This supports the hypothesis that network complexity influences the ability of an observer to identify the features within a network, however, due to the complexity of the data and relatively small sample size, in depth statistical testing could not be performed, therefore the results may give an indication that complexity influences observer performance, but cannot be reported with confidence. Recruitment of a larger pool of participants would have taken considerably more time and resources, which was deemed extraneous to the remit of this study, as a portion of a larger project. Given that this study was performed using mostly untrained observers, this shows that when presented with simple to intermediate level networks, little training is required to enable the observer to identify the features, however when presented with networks of higher complexity, observers with little experience or training struggle to repeat the network. It would be beneficial to extend this study to assess whether different levels of training influence observer performance. Influence of learning on observer performance Prior to participation in this study, some observers had no training or direct experience of applying the techniques employed in this study; therefore it was reasonable to expect that some degree of learning would take place during the study, i. To minimise the effect of network complexity when assessing learning, the observers were provided with the images in different sequences. Although overall, there was an indication that observer performance improved by the end of the study, regardless of image sequence it cannot be stated if this was statistically significant. The indication however, suggests that minimal experience is required before a user is proficient in terms of network reproduction. Due to the relatively small sample size used in this study and the complexity of the data, an in-depth statistical interrogation was not possible and therefore the study cannot provide conclusive evidence to support that learning has occurred. It would be useful to extend this study to include more images and more observers, so that statistical analyses could be extended. It would also be beneficial to 134 investigate whether other fac to rs contribute to the performance of observers, such as indirect experience of the methods. This may relate to observer experience in image analysis in relation to other fields of work, or skills such as an understanding of networks, and therefore an appreciation of their recording. Relationship between prior knowledge/experience and performance It is important to be aware of how experience and knowledge influence observer performance as this may be useful when selecting a forensic practitioner, and to estimate the level of training required for a practitioner to be proficient. It was hypothesised that the previous knowledge and experience of the observers would influence their ability to identify the features of a vein network successfully. Minimal ana to mical knowledge may have been beneficial to understand the direction of blood flow in the vein for the assignment of directional information, however this information was stated in the information pack so all observers were aware of all relevant information. It was therefore not surprising that ana to mical knowledge was shown to be an insignificant fac to r in observer performance. It theorised that experience of hand feature analysis may have been beneficial in this study, but was not found to be the case. Had further operational tasks been involved such as analysing the data, this may have presented a different result; therefore again it was not surprising that this lack 135 of experience did not affect observer performance. Experience of Pho to shop may not have influenced the performance of the observer directly, but it was noted anecdotally that those who were less experienced in Pho to shop needed more assistance during the study, and to ok longer to complete the task. The differences in findings may be due to more ana to mical knowledge being required for the initial tracing of the vein pattern, whilst in the current study, this was prepared for the observer. It is difficult to draw robust conclusions with the limited sample size, but initial results suggest that experience or knowledge does not have a significant effect on the ability to extract vein pattern information successfully. As explained, the sample sizes were deemed appropriate for this short study, but it can be appreciated that to draw more robust conclusions, additional resources should be sought to acquire a larger sample of data. Conversely, the inter-observer study, showed performance was better in the sparse networks compared to the dense networks. This difference in performance may be due to the increased experience and knowledge of the procedure by the author (intra-observer) compared to observers who to ok part in the inter-observer study. This would suggest that with direct experience, observer performance may improve, although this cannot be formally deduced from the results of this study. It should therefore be noted that this is a vital step where the utmost care and attention are required to ensure accurate data recording. It is expected that this may increase with further experience and operation of the technique. To eradicate human error, future studies should consider the development of an au to mated approach to data extraction from visible light images, however it is thought that a human observer should always oversee the process as it has been shown that au to mated systems can interpret other structures as veins, such as tendons or shadows on the dorsum of the hand (Bellini, 2010). It should also be noted that the inter-observer traces were compared to a reference network produced by the author. Due to limited sample size in both studies, coupled with the complexity of the vein network data, it is difficult to draw substantial conclusions from these studies. However, 137 the indication is that a human observer can extract vein pattern information reliably from a digital image although further studies are required to establish the level of training required. A selection of images from this database were used to address the different aims; which will be specified in the relevant sections. Vein network data was extracted from the images, following the methods outlined in section 6. The median value was used in most cases to describe the average, due to the fact that the data was not normally distributed; therefore the mean value would provide a poor representation of the spread of the data by being to o heavily influenced by, or to o sensitive to , the extremes of the data set. The multidimensionality that results from inter-connected node and edges increase the 138 number of possible network configurations. An increase in the number of nodes calls for extensive mathematical and statistical analyses before defining a null model to assess the statistical difference between two networks. Such analyses require the derivation of moderately large targeted datasets and the development of appropriate statistical to ols, both of which are beyond the scope of this thesis. Therefore, while an explora to ry statistical analysis of network differences will be presented, hypothesis testing was not included and p values were not derived in all instances. Where possible, traditional statistical methods were utilised, however due to the reasons just outlined, these must be interpreted with care. The following methods were used where appropriate and according to the variable being tested. A correlation coefficient near 1 indicates that, on average, when one variable increases the other increases proportionally, while a correlation coefficient near -1 indicates that on average when one variable increases the other decreases proportionally. To establish the correlation coefficient the following equation was used: (,) Equation 6-2: = v 139 2 2 the two variances of the variables are denoted by s and s. If x and y (the two variables in question) are linearly independent (are not correlated) the value of covariance is 0 (Crawley, 2013). In this section, data from 9 mp, clenched fist images only will be presented to illustrate the distribution of features without the influence of other variables, including hand pose and image quality, as these may introduce an unknown level of error by affecting the level of detail within the image. Edge and node distribution the complexity of a network is multifaceted, and no definition exists in relation to quantification of network complexity. On comparatively similar networks, such as those derived from the visible vein pattern of the hand, this was considered appropriate. The table below shows networks from the 9 mp, clenched fist sub-set of data, and shows them categorised as sparse, intermediate and dense according to the number of nodes and edges (Table 6-9). Table 6-9 the distribution of edges and nodes across the sample database (9 mp, C image data). Edges Nodes Category Number of Number of Range Range networks networks Sparse 0 to 8 23 0 to 9 20 Intermediate 8 to 16 55 9 to 15 57 140 Dense 16 to 28 28 15 to 24 29 Most of the networks were categorised as intermediate, followed by dense, with the least networks categorised as sparse. The values from edge and node data suggest a strong relationship between nodes and edges. Upon closer examination, this hypothesis was confirmed, nodes and edges were strongly correlated (R = 0. Table 6-10 Results from the correlation test between the number of nodes and edges. Interestingly, two of the outliers (B and C) have a high number of loops; this would explain the reason for a high number of edges, without the corresponding high number of nodes. These individuals possessing edges at the higher end of the scale present a denser and therefore more complex network. Nodes the median number of nodes in a network was 13, with 50% of the individuals possessing between 10 and 16 nodes (Figure 6. More complex motifs would possess more nodes and edges, but importantly, more edges per node; in some cases this would create a loop or an intersection. There were 7 motifs discovered within the dataset (2, 3 node motifs (A and B) and 5, 4 node motifs (C G). The non-loop, 3 node motif (A) was found in 100% of networks, whereas the 3 node loop (B) was more rarely encountered. Loops A loop is a type of motif, comprised of three, four or five nodes and represents an area that is entirely enclosed by a region of connected veins (Figure 6. The majority of the networks considered were free from loops of any size, while one loop was found to be present in 29. Simple 3 node loops were the most common; one 3 node loop was identified in 16% of the networks. Given this finding, it was likely that as the number of edges and nodes increased the number of loops would also increase. It was found that networks with loops contained a significantly greater number of edges than networks free from loops (p = <0.
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